Early Wales was divided into a number of small kingdoms, but in the course of time, four major kingdoms developed--Gwynedd in the northwest; Powys in the centre; Deheubarth in the southwest; and Morgannwg in the southeast. The most powerful royal house was that of Gwynedd, which claimed descent from Cunedda, a leader who had migrated to Wales from the banks of the River Forth in Scotland. Rhodri Mawr (Rhodri the Great), a later king of Gwynedd (?-877), united most of Wales under his rule. He also succeeded in defending Wales from the Vikings. His grandson, Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good), who died in 950, codified the laws of Wales and recognized Athelstan, the king of England, as his overlord (ruler). Hywel's great-great-grandson, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, who died in 1063, brought the whole of Wales under his control.
Harold, Earl of Wessex, invaded Wales in 1063, and Gruffudd's kingdom collapsed. When William of Normandy won the throne of England in 1066, Wales was again divided into four kingdoms. William established three earldoms--Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford--on the Welsh border. He encouraged the earls to seize the territories of the Welsh. The advancing Normans built stout castles to keep control of their conquests, and by 1094 Welsh rule in Wales seemed doomed. But a great revolt in that year drove the Normans from Gwynedd and Powys and from much of Deheubarth. A string of lordships along the border and along the south coast, which remained under Norman control, became known as the March of Wales. Among Welsh contenders for power were Madog ap Maredudd of Powys (died 1160), Owain Gwynedd (died 1170), and Rhys ap Gruffudd (known as the Lord Rhys) of Deheubarth (died 1197).
The Normans also sought to control the Welsh Church. By 1143, the whole of Wales lay under the authority of the archbishop of Canterbury. The Welsh reacted by seeking archbishop status for the bishop of St. David's. Gerald the Welshman (1145?-1223) was particularly prominent in this campaign. Gerald wrote several books on Wales providing a fascinating picture of the life and character of the Welsh. Monasteries of the Continental monastic orders were set up in Wales, and some of their abbeys (most notably Strata Florida, not far from Aberystwyth), became important centres of Welsh culture. The Welsh rulers were also patrons of culture. The Lord Rhys held a famous eisteddfod in 1176.
The English conquest of Wales. The English kings sought to weaken the power of the Welsh rulers in the 1200's. The princes of Gwynedd reacted by trying to unite Wales. Llywelyn the Great (died 1240) helped advance the power of Gwynedd. His grandson, Llywelyn II, succeeded in 1267 in winning recognition as Prince of Wales with authority over all the other Welsh rulers. But he was slow to acknowledge the overlordship of Edward I. Edward's armies attacked him in 1277. In 1282, he died in a minor battle with a troop of English forces. With Llywelyn's death, Wales's independence was at an end. Wales became subject to the authority of Edward I.